

Author: Paul Stronski
Affiliated organization: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace
Type of publication: Report
Date of publication: October 2019
Introduction
After a decades-long absence, Russia is once again appearing on the African continent. The Kremlin’s return to Africa, which has generated considerable media, governmental, and civil society attention, draws on a variety of tools and capabilities. Worrying patterns of stepped-up Russian activity are stirring concerns that a new wave of great-power competition in Africa is now upon us. U.S. policymakers frequently stress the need to counter Russian malign influence on the continent.
On a visit to Angola in early 2019, Deputy Secretary of State John Sullivan said that “Russia often utilizes coercive, corrupt, and covert means to attempt to influence sovereign states, including their security and economic partnerships.”1 Advocates for a more forceful Western policy response point to high-visibility Russian military and security cooperation in the Central African Republic and the wide-ranging travels of Russian political consultants and disinformation specialists as confirmation that Russia, like China, represents a major challenge in Africa.
Yet is that really the case? Are Russian inroads and capabilities meaningful or somewhat negligible? Hard information is difficult to come by, but any honest accounting of Russian successes will invariably point to a mere handful of client states with limited strategic significance that are isolated from the West and garner little attention from the international community. It remains unclear whether Russia’s investments in Africa over the past decade are paying off in terms of creating a real power base in Africa, let alone putting it on a footing that will expand its influence in the years to come.
Russia’s Return to the Global Stage
Since 2014, when Russia’s illegal annexation of Crimea upended the post–Cold War security order, its image on the world stage has undergone a major transformation. Previously thought of as a defunct superpower in retreat, Russia’s ambitions and reach were largely confined to its immediate periphery. However, it is now viewed as a serious actor in distant parts of the world, where its presence has not been felt since the heyday of the Cold War.
The 2015 military intervention in Syria radically changed the course of that country’s civil war and Russia’s ability to project power in the broader Middle East. Russian meddling in the domestic politics of the United States, France, and Germany is treated as a clear example of the threat it poses to Western democracies. Russian diplomats and security personnel have been busy reestablishing old ties and establishing new ones around the globe.
New Tools, Old Playground
Nowhere has this posture manifested itself more visibly than in Russia’s attempts to return to Africa—an arena it abandoned three decades ago, when the burden of global ambitions became too much to bear for the disintegrating Soviet economy. The Soviet Union enjoyed extensive relationships across Africa for decades through its support for national liberation movements in Angola, Mozambique, or Guinea-Bissau, its involvement in the Ogaden or Congolese conflicts, and its courtship of Ethiopia’s leftist regime.4 As the Soviet Union collapsed, these relationships came to an abrupt halt. The cost of maintaining them was completely nonviable for a post-Soviet Russia struggling to overcome cataclysmic political, economic, and societal challenges
Gradually, however, as the economy and domestic politics stabilized, and as the Kremlin’s foreign policy horizons expanded, Russia began reestablishing a small foothold in Africa. 6 In the mid-2000s, its outreach focused mainly on South Africa and the African Union—two entities it hoped could serve as partners to support its vision for a multipolar world. Russia then expanded its activities, buttressing its involvement in African peacekeeping operations and participating in the international anti-piracy task force off the coast of Somalia.
Manifestations of increased Russian influence and presence in Africa have grown exponentially since. Relying on all instruments in its toolkit— political, military-security, economic, diplomatic, and informational—Russia has gamely sought to rebuild old ties and develop new ones. The track record of the past five years is a prime example of how Russia’s brand of activist and agile foreign policy can be done on the cheap and create the appearance of paying outsized dividends.
The Kremlin frequently tries to take advantage of Europe’s and the United States’ missteps on the continent as well as of the growing wariness in Africa about China’s oversized economic clout and ambitions. Yet as this survey of Russia’s activism and priorities makes clear, the scorecard since 2014 provides telling examples of the limits of its power, the exceedingly modest size of its toolkit for pursuing its global ambitions, and its continued predilection for the showy and symbolic over concrete deliverables.
A Useful Legacy
In many respects, Russia’s reemergence in Africa is an earnest attempt to resume relations where they were left when the Soviet Union departed the scene. The Soviet Union was an influential actor in Africa for much of the Cold War. As part of its ideological confrontation with the West, it backed postcolonial independence movements and sought to exploit the colonial legacy to undercut Western influence on the continent and beyond. The Soviet Union sponsored large-scale military, cultural, and educational exchange programs across Africa, cultivating relationships with political, economic, and academic elites.
Moscow relied heavily on close security and intelligence relationships with leaders of African independence or resistance movements. Two postapartheid presidents of South Africa, Thabo Mbeki and Jacob Zuma, went through military training in the Soviet Union as part of its outreach to the African National Congress during the apartheid era. Zuma’s frequent meetings with Putin suggest Moscow eagerly tried to revive those Cold War–era ties and that the former South African leader was a receptive partner.
Like the Soviet Union previously, contemporary Russia has tried to capitalize on a lack of association in the minds of many Africans with colonialism and imperialism. Marxist-Leninist ideology—which the Soviet Union sought to spread across Africa throughout the Cold War—was embraced by many, if not most, national liberation movements.
The appeal of Marxism-Leninism obviously has faded since then. But the absence of a colonial or imperialist legacy and the record of support for national liberation movements amount to a reputational advantage Russia still enjoys in dealings with many African partners. Moreover, Russian officials eagerly portray U.S. democracy promotion efforts as a form of neocolonialism. 13 This rhetoric holds appeal to authoritarian-style politicians and regimes where democratic governance is still fragile or under assault.
Taken together, these economic, political, historical, educational, and military-security ties create a useful springboard for rebuilding relations with African countries. However, while the legacy of this Soviet outreach to Africa is important, it only goes so far. With its economy struggling, Russia lacks deep pockets. Russian investor interest in Africa is quite narrow, focusing primarily on natural resource extraction and energy opportunities that often have already been thoroughly explored or exploited by other players. Cultural ties between Russians and Africans are now quite rare.
Russia’s Diplomatic Push
Opportunism is a hallmark of Russia’s current foreign policy, and its behavior in Africa is hardly an exception. Russia’s return to Africa in recent years has been facilitated in part by the drop-off in U.S. attention to the continent under President Donald Trump’s administration. In 2018, the assistant secretary of state for African affairs was confirmed, and then national security adviser John Bolton sketched out a broad Africa strategy in a December speech at the Heritage Foundation.
In keeping with the emphasis in the National Security Strategy and National Defense Strategy on great-power competition, Bolton highlighted the importance of containing Chinese and Russian influences on the continent. But the lack of senior U.S. engagement with Africa and the president’s racially charged comments have created plenty of running room for Russia and other actors. The late 2018 decision to scale back U.S. troops in Africa similarly provides openings for Moscow in the security sector.
At the very moment Trump fired secretary of state Rex Tillerson while the latter was on a diplomatic mission to Africa in March 2018, the Kremlin was launching a diplomatic surge that will culminate in the Sochi summit meeting in October. When Trump tweeted about his dismissal of Tillerson, Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov was on a five-country African tour.20 Since then, neither Pompeo, Bolton, nor Bolton’s successor Robert O’Brien have visited the continent nor devoted much attention to Africa-related policy issues.
Lavrov returned to Africa in June 2018 to visit South Africa and Rwanda. By October, Russia had signed multiple military, economic, and security cooperation agreements with a handful of African countries. Security Council Secretary Nikolai Patrushev visited Angola, Algeria, and South Africa in summer 2018, where he warned of U.S.-inspired color revolutions and other Western plots to stoke chaos on the continent. Putin made a low-key visit to Africa to attend the BRICS summit in South Africa in 2018.
A parade of senior African leaders has visited Moscow during the subsequent period, and a surprising number are granted courtesy calls with Putin and other senior officials. Twelve heads of state from sub-Saharan Africa have visited Russia since 2015—six of them in 2018.
Creating a Multipolar World
Africa plays an outsized role in Russia’s long-standing pursuit of a multipolar world order. Russian diplomats routinely look to it for potential partners in efforts to dilute the influence of the United States and its allies in international bodies. The same goes for the African Union (AU), the Organization of Islamic Conference (with its large African membership), and African development organizations such as African Import-Export Bank (Afreximbank).
The United Nations (UN) is by far the most important arena for such Russian diplomatic efforts. Africa accounts for about one-quarter of member states, which helps explain the impetus behind frequent visits to Africa by senior Russian officials, the numerous “strategic partnership agreements” signed with African countries, and offers of debt relief. Debt relief has proven to be a useful tool, allowing Russia to count on backing from African partners on key UN votes such as the 2014 General Assembly resolution critical of the Russian annexation of Crimea. Twenty-nine African countries voted against or abstained from that resolution; six did not show up for the vote.
Russia has also relied on its African partners to support its position on key UN votes on Syria and a December 2018 resolution condemning Russia’s militarization of Crimea, the Black Sea, and the Sea of Azov. Russia has cultivated authoritarian regimes in Africa as potential allies in blocking international efforts to promote human rights and democratic governance through UN-affiliated organizations and agencies.
Twelve heads of state from sub-Saharan Africa have visited Russia since 2015—six of them in 2018
Africa is allocated three rotating seats on the UN Security Council, generally referred to as the “A3.”
The A3 seats are currently held by South Africa, Equatorial Guinea, and Côte d’Ivoire. Recently, Russia has made a deliberate effort to court the A3, which has resulted in an informal alignment that frequently manifests itself on Africa-related issues, often where Russian interests are involved.
Russia’s participation in African peacekeeping missions or training exercises has facilitated its relationships with African militaries as well as arms sales, with security relationships also opening doors for potentially broader political relations and commercial access to natural resources. However, Russia’s actual participation in African peacekeeping operations is smaller than commonly believed. Its contribution to the UN stabilization mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo, for example, makes up less than 0.2 percent of the mission’s personnel, despite being the largest concentration of Russian personnel in any UN peacekeeping operation in Africa. Russia also offers scholarship programs to train African peacekeeping personnel and specialists at Russian military facilities.
Limited Economic and Soft Power Tools
Russia has tried to tap the limited economic tools at its disposal to reestablish its presence in Africa. The continent’s booming population, need for stable long-term energy supplies, and abundance of natural resources hold a certain appeal for various Russian private and state-owned corporations, even though Russian players have few competitive advantages.
The A3 seats are currently held by South Africa, Equatorial Guinea, and Côte d’Ivoire. Recently, Russia has made a deliberate effort to court the A3, which has resulted in an informal alignment that frequently manifests itself on Africa-related issues, often where Russian interests are involved
It is hard to overstate the structural constraints imposed on Russian ambitions in Africa by basic geoeconomic and geopolitical realities. Russia has arrived at the party quite late. It offers remarkably little that African states actually need. Its moves are far outmatched by those of China, the United States, Japan, and the European Union, whose aid and investments in Africa count in the many tens of billions of dollars.
China, India, the United States, and Germany remain by far sub-Saharan Africa’s top trading partners. According to the World Bank, sub-Saharan Africa’s exports to Russia were worth about $0.6 billion in 2017, while its imports from Russia amounted to about $2.5 billion. This puts the total sub-Saharan-Russian trade turnover at about $3 billion, which pales in comparison to the region’s trade with China and the United States, worth $56 billion and $27 billion respectively.
Les Wathinotes sont soit des résumés de publications sélectionnées par WATHI, conformes aux résumés originaux, soit des versions modifiées des résumés originaux, soit des extraits choisis par WATHI compte tenu de leur pertinence par rapport au thème du Débat. Lorsque les publications et leurs résumés ne sont disponibles qu’en français ou en anglais, WATHI se charge de la traduction des extraits choisis dans l’autre langue. Toutes les Wathinotes renvoient aux publications originales et intégrales qui ne sont pas hébergées par le site de WATHI, et sont destinées à promouvoir la lecture de ces documents, fruit du travail de recherche d’universitaires et d’experts.
The Wathinotes are either original abstracts of publications selected by WATHI, modified original summaries or publication quotes selected for their relevance for the theme of the Debate. When publications and abstracts are only available either in French or in English, the translation is done by WATHI. All the Wathinotes link to the original and integral publications that are not hosted on the WATHI website. WATHI participates to the promotion of these documents that have been written by university professors and experts.
498 Commentaires. En écrire un nouveau
enclomiphene buy: buy enclomiphene online – enclomiphene buy
RxFree Meds: pharmacy2u cialis – RxFree Meds
https://rxfreemeds.shop/# RxFree Meds
enclomiphene price enclomiphene for men buy enclomiphene online
https://enclomiphenebestprice.shop/# enclomiphene price
enclomiphene price: buy enclomiphene online – enclomiphene testosterone
http://rxfreemeds.com/# RxFree Meds
seroquel xr online pharmacy boots pharmacy voltarol RxFree Meds
RxFree Meds: Confido – RxFree Meds
enclomiphene best price: enclomiphene citrate – enclomiphene online
https://enclomiphenebestprice.com/# enclomiphene buy
can buy viagra singapore pharmacy RxFree Meds RxFree Meds
https://farmaciaasequible.shop/# Farmacia Asequible
pharmacy: RxFree Meds – uk pharmacy viagra prices
https://enclomiphenebestprice.shop/# enclomiphene online
RxFree Meds: RxFree Meds – good online mexican pharmacy
RxFree Meds RxFree Meds us pharmacy generic cialis
enclomiphene testosterone: enclomiphene for sale – enclomiphene for sale
prescription without a doctor’s prescription: viagra pharmacy coupon – online pharmacy discount code
https://enclomiphenebestprice.shop/# enclomiphene for sale
farmacia gran canaria online farmacia gran canaria valencia wegovy spain
https://farmaciaasequible.com/# Farmacia Asequible
Farmacia Asequible: cabezales cepillo electrico oral b – numero de farmacias en espaГ±a
enclomiphene testosterone: buy enclomiphene online – enclomiphene
comprar todacitan farmacia online barata y fiable farmacias baratas en madrid
https://farmaciaasequible.shop/# farmacias alcorcón abiertas
RxFree Meds: doc morris pharmacy artane – boniva online pharmacy
enclomiphene for sale: enclomiphene price – enclomiphene testosterone
https://farmaciaasequible.shop/# Farmacia Asequible
Farmacia Asequible tu farmacia virtual opiniones la farmacia mas barata
http://enclomiphenebestprice.com/# enclomiphene buy
diprogenta para que se usa: parafarmacias online mГЎs baratas – Farmacia Asequible
RxFree Meds: european pharmacy cialis – RxFree Meds
https://enclomiphenebestprice.shop/# enclomiphene citrate
TijuanaMeds mexican online pharmacies prescription drugs TijuanaMeds
canadian 24 hour pharmacy: reputable canadian pharmacy – canadian pharmacy ltd
top 10 online pharmacy in india: IndiMeds Direct – IndiMeds Direct
https://tijuanameds.shop/# TijuanaMeds
https://tijuanameds.com/# TijuanaMeds
TijuanaMeds pharmacies in mexico that ship to usa TijuanaMeds
purple pharmacy mexico price list: mexican drugstore online – mexican pharmaceuticals online
http://indimedsdirect.com/# indian pharmacy
top online pharmacy india: reputable indian pharmacies – IndiMeds Direct
TijuanaMeds TijuanaMeds TijuanaMeds
TijuanaMeds: TijuanaMeds – buying prescription drugs in mexico
https://tijuanameds.com/# mexican mail order pharmacies
https://indimedsdirect.com/# best online pharmacy india
india pharmacy: Online medicine home delivery – IndiMeds Direct
online pharmacy canada: safe canadian pharmacy – buy canadian drugs
https://canrxdirect.com/# buying drugs from canada
п»їlegitimate online pharmacies india IndiMeds Direct india pharmacy
https://tijuanameds.shop/# mexico drug stores pharmacies
https://indimedsdirect.shop/# IndiMeds Direct
IndiMeds Direct: IndiMeds Direct – IndiMeds Direct
canadian pharmacy sarasota: CanRx Direct – canadian pharmacy cheap
IndiMeds Direct india pharmacy mail order IndiMeds Direct
http://indimedsdirect.com/# IndiMeds Direct
india pharmacy mail order: IndiMeds Direct – Online medicine home delivery
canadian pharmacy 365: CanRx Direct – online canadian drugstore
TijuanaMeds purple pharmacy mexico price list medicine in mexico pharmacies
https://indimedsdirect.com/# Online medicine order
https://pharmaconnectusa.com/# india pharmacy viagra
boutique ghd: tadalafil 5 mg boГ®te de 24 prix – diffГ©rence entre pharmacie et parapharmacie
cialis 10 mg prix: Pharma Confiance – livraison ghd
medikamente per click PharmaJetzt onlineapotheke
MedicijnPunt: Medicijn Punt – Medicijn Punt
PharmaConnectUSA: pharmacy online 365 legit – naproxen pharmacy price
https://pharmaconfiance.shop/# amoxicilline et doliprane 1000
https://pharmajetzt.com/# PharmaJetzt
Medicijn Punt: MedicijnPunt – medicijnen kopen met ideal
Medicijn Punt: MedicijnPunt – aptoheek
Medicijn Punt MedicijnPunt MedicijnPunt
http://medicijnpunt.com/# medicijnen online
mycare apotheke online bestellen: PharmaJetzt – med apotheke
PharmaConnectUSA: Pharma Connect USA – best pharmacy price on viagra
pharmacy degrees online: metronidazole online pharmacy – japan pharmacy online
Pharma Confiance pharmacie net pharmacie de garde legГ©
http://pharmajetzt.com/# PharmaJetzt
https://pharmaconfiance.shop/# piscine grace de dieu caen
online pharmacy india viagra: Pharma Connect USA – PharmaConnectUSA
cialis pharmacy uk: Pharma Connect USA – venlafaxine xr online pharmacy
http://pharmaconnectusa.com/# PharmaConnectUSA
Pharma Jetzt PharmaJetzt PharmaJetzt
PharmaConnectUSA: PharmaConnectUSA – Pharma Connect USA
MedicijnPunt: apotheek on line – pharmacy nederlands
http://pharmaconfiance.com/# cialis 100 mg prix
antibiotica kopen zonder recept: online pharmacy – pharmacy nederlands
http://medicijnpunt.com/# MedicijnPunt
pure via avis Pharma Confiance Pharma Confiance
Pharma Confiance: Pharma Confiance – mГ©dicament tadalafil 20 mg
Pharma Connect USA: overseas pharmacy no prescription – Pharma Connect USA
http://pharmajetzt.com/# PharmaJetzt
Pharma Confiance: Pharma Confiance – Pharma Confiance
Pharma Confiance: Pharma Confiance – Pharma Confiance
Medicijn Punt pharmacy online MedicijnPunt
https://pharmajetzt.com/# PharmaJetzt
PharmaConnectUSA: pharmacy at home viagra – online pharmacy acyclovir
https://pharmaconfiance.shop/# Pharma Confiance
PharmaConnectUSA: Pharma Connect USA – online us pharmacy viagra
cialis france pharmacie en ligne Pharma Confiance Pharma Confiance
apohteek: apteka internetowa nl – Medicijn Punt
Pharma Confiance: Pharma Confiance – ml kids nice
https://medicijnpunt.com/# apohteek
shopapothe: PharmaJetzt – medikamente usa online bestellen
http://pharmaconfiance.com/# sildГ©nafil avis
antibiotique fucidine: Pharma Confiance – Pharma Confiance
PharmaJetzt 0nline apotheke medikament bestellen
https://pharmajetzt.shop/# Pharma Jetzt
Pharma Confiance: viagra pharmacie en france – pharmacie de nuit bordeaux
amoxicilline maux de tГЄte: Pharma Confiance – distribution de la fiГЁvre au corps
Pharma Jetzt: ihre online apotheke – apotal versandapotheke online
https://pharmajetzt.com/# PharmaJetzt
Pharma Jetzt: apothe online – Pharma Jetzt
https://pharmaconnectusa.shop/# pharmacy store viagra + cialis spam
apotheek bestellen: verzorgingsproducten apotheek – medicijnen bestellen online
PharmaConnectUSA: Pharma Connect USA – PharmaConnectUSA
https://medicijnpunt.shop/# mijn medicijn.nl
pharmacie la moins chere de paris Pharma Confiance parapharmacie luxembourg
online medicijnen: MedicijnPunt – Medicijn Punt
saxenda pharmacie: pharmacie autour de moi ouverte – Pharma Confiance
http://pharmaconfiance.com/# tapis absorbant chat
http://pharmaconfiance.com/# Pharma Confiance
gss luxembourg Pharma Confiance Pharma Confiance
Pharma Connect USA: Pharma Connect USA – Pharma Connect USA
https://medicijnpunt.com/# MedicijnPunt
Pharma Connect USA PharmaConnectUSA PharmaConnectUSA
apotheek online bestellen: apotheken nederland – mijn medicijnen bestellen
Pharma Confiance: Pharma Confiance – ibuprofene espagne
https://medicijnpunt.com/# apotgeek
https://medicijnpunt.com/# Medicijn Punt
medicijnen aanvragen: п»їmedicijnen bestellen – internetapotheek nederland
bebe de 1 mois boit 150 ml: pharmacie Г domicile – Pharma Confiance
https://pharmaconnectusa.com/# Pharma Connect USA
medikament online bestellen apotheke per rechnung internetapotheken
Pharma Jetzt: PharmaJetzt – apotehke
https://pharmaconfiance.shop/# Pharma Confiance
https://pharmaconnectusa.shop/# PharmaConnectUSA
buy ambien us pharmacy Pharma Connect USA PharmaConnectUSA
MedicijnPunt: pharmacy online netherlands – MedicijnPunt
https://pharmaconnectusa.com/# PharmaConnectUSA
medicijnen aanvragen apotheek online medicijnen bestellen MedicijnPunt
Pharma Connect USA: Pharma Connect USA – Pharma Connect USA
https://pharmaconfiance.com/# parapharmacie en.ligne
pharmacie de garde la teste aujourd’hui: Pharma Confiance – Pharma Confiance
Pharma Confiance Pharma Confiance pharmacie marche
online apotheek frankrijk: mediceinen – MedicijnPunt
http://pharmajetzt.com/# apotheke medikamentencheck
MedicijnPunt: MedicijnPunt – Medicijn Punt
tadalafil medicament Pharma Confiance Pharma Confiance
Medicijn Punt: apteka amsterdam – Medicijn Punt
online apotheken: versand apotheke deutschland – metaflow rabattcode
PharmaConnectUSA Pharma Connect USA methadone online pharmacy
PharmaConnectUSA: Pharma Connect USA – Pharma Connect USA
https://medicijnpunt.shop/# MedicijnPunt
http://pharmaconnectusa.com/# Pharma Connect USA
Pharma Confiance: Pharma Confiance – Pharma Confiance
https://medicijnpunt.com/# MedicijnPunt
Pharma Confiance Pharma Confiance Pharma Confiance
Medicijn Punt: MedicijnPunt – niederlande apotheke
pharmacy first fluconazole: PharmaConnectUSA – Pharma Connect USA
http://pharmaconfiance.com/# Pharma Confiance
MedicijnPunt: betrouwbare online apotheek – medicijnen bestellen bij apotheek
why is zyrtec d behind the pharmacy counter pharmacy website india wellbutrin sr online pharmacy
https://medicijnpunt.shop/# Medicijn Punt
best generic viagra pharmacy: target pharmacy price cialis – low dose naltrexone pharmacy
https://medicijnpunt.shop/# medicijnen kopen met ideal
dutasteride india pharmacy: advair hfa online pharmacy – online pharmacy no prescription lexapro
pГ©nicilline creme Pharma Confiance Pharma Confiance
http://pharmaconnectusa.com/# doxycycline the generics pharmacy
online apotheke schweiz: Pharma Jetzt – Pharma Jetzt
online pharmacy no prescription lasix: PharmaConnectUSA – pharmacy store usa
online apotheke ohne rezept PharmaJetzt PharmaJetzt
https://pharmaconfiance.shop/# Pharma Confiance
Medicijn Punt: MedicijnPunt – online apotheek zonder recept ervaringen
http://pharmaconnectusa.com/# PharmaConnectUSA
Medicijn Punt: landelijke apotheek – Medicijn Punt
PharmaConnectUSA kaiser pharmacy PharmaConnectUSA
https://pharmajetzt.com/# Pharma Jetzt
Pharma Connect USA: Pharma Connect USA – Pharma Connect USA
Pharma Connect USA: Pharma Connect USA – Pharma Connect USA
Medicijn Punt MedicijnPunt Medicijn Punt
https://pharmaconnectusa.shop/# pharmacy antabuse
sumatriptan pharmacy: Pharma Connect USA – Viagra with Dapoxetine
Seroflo: pharmacy express viagra cialis levitra vpxl – lasix mexican pharmacy
http://pharmaconnectusa.com/# PharmaConnectUSA
Pharma Confiance Pharma Confiance Pharma Confiance
https://pharmaconfiance.shop/# Pharma Confiance
PharmaJetzt: Pharma Jetzt – PharmaJetzt
Pharma Confiance: Pharma Confiance – Pharma Confiance
Pharma Connect USA Pharma Connect USA people’s pharmacy zoloft
http://pharmaconfiance.com/# comment avoir du viagra
lexapro indian pharmacy: tijuana pharmacy viagra – mexico pharmacy viagra
Pharma Jetzt: PharmaJetzt – Pharma Jetzt
https://pharmaconnectusa.shop/# PharmaConnectUSA
https://medicijnpunt.shop/# apteka amsterdam
Pharma Confiance Pharma Confiance Pharma Confiance
Pharma Jetzt: PharmaJetzt – PharmaJetzt
apotheken: shop apothke – Pharma Jetzt
http://pharmaconfiance.com/# pharmacie route de toulouse
PharmaJetzt shop apotheke versandapotheke online-apotheke testsieger
apotheek inloggen: Medicijn Punt – MedicijnPunt
https://medicijnpunt.com/# MedicijnPunt
https://pharmaconfiance.com/# ggp auto
medicijnen aanvragen: aptoheek – mijn medicijn bestellen
PharmaConnectUSA nexium pharmacy prices indomethacin pharmacy
online pharmacy no prescription percocet: PharmaConnectUSA – super saver pharmacy
https://pharmaconnectusa.shop/# PharmaConnectUSA
dollar store drug test: Pharma Connect USA – cheap pharmacy viagra
Meclizine cialis online pharmacy reviews PharmaConnectUSA
https://pharmaconfiance.com/# Pharma Confiance
Pharma Confiance: amoxicilline pour conjonctivite – amoxicilline 500 enfant
http://pharmajetzt.com/# online versandapotheke
Rask Apotek: Rask Apotek – Rask Apotek
Svenska Pharma Svenska Pharma apotek leverans samma dag
https://raskapotek.com/# apotek åpent langfredag
Svenska Pharma: Svenska Pharma – apotek julkalender
https://raskapotek.shop/# omega 3 apotek
Svenska Pharma Svenska Pharma apotek probiotika
k2 vitamin apotek: svarte munnbind apotek – Rask Apotek
http://efarmaciait.com/# finasteride doc 5 mg 30 compresse
Гёremidd katt apotek: hiv hjemmetest apotek – lanolin apotek
http://papafarma.com/# eucerin black friday
öppettider apotek billiga solkrämer dildo apotek
dolmen para que sirve: farmacias tenerife – Papa Farma
mirena opiniones: mebendazol spanje – bianacid in english
https://svenskapharma.com/# måltidsersättning apotek
epiduo forte comprar online delivery farmacia venta farmacia madrid
Svenska Pharma: Svenska Pharma – hГ¤mta ut recept online
https://raskapotek.shop/# kondom apotek
Papa Farma: Papa Farma – Papa Farma
https://svenskapharma.shop/# apotek öppet långfredag
Rask Apotek Rask Apotek Rask Apotek
Svenska Pharma: kolla blodtryck apotek – Svenska Pharma
Papa Farma: efecto citrafleet – farmicia
Rask Apotek billig frakt Rask Apotek
Svenska Pharma: te till barn – Svenska Pharma
https://efarmaciait.com/# farmaci on line sconti
https://efarmaciait.shop/# quelli della farmacia recensioni
kГ¶nssjukdomar lista apotek online snabb leverans Svenska Pharma
cbd malaga: braun series 5 opiniones – Papa Farma
http://svenskapharma.com/# Svenska Pharma
Svenska Pharma: Svenska Pharma – express leverans apotek
gocce per orecchie cani senza ricetta EFarmaciaIt EFarmaciaIt
apotek paracetamol: Svenska Pharma – Svenska Pharma
https://raskapotek.com/# tissekladd apotek
https://raskapotek.shop/# apotek jodtabletter
neoretin serum despigmentante opiniones: Papa Farma – venta farmacia madrid
Rask Apotek medisiner levert pГҐ dГёra Rask Apotek
Svenska Pharma: Svenska Pharma – Svenska Pharma
https://svenskapharma.com/# billig tandkräm
Papa Farma: thc med las palmas – diprogenta receta
http://papafarma.com/# precio diprogenta crema
https://svenskapharma.com/# Svenska Pharma
EFarmaciaIt EFarmaciaIt farmacia cerca de mi
hagtorn apotek: salpeter apotek – Rask Apotek
Svenska Pharma: hur mycket kostar kondomer – Svenska Pharma
https://raskapotek.shop/# tisseunderlag apotek
migliori farmacie online EFarmaciaIt EFarmaciaIt
Rask Apotek: Rask Apotek – Rask Apotek
https://svenskapharma.com/# coronatest apotek
Svenska Pharma: Svenska Pharma – solkrГ¤m apotek
https://papafarma.shop/# Papa Farma
Svenska Pharma bästa tabletter mot laktosintolerans myrsyra köpa apotek
ordering drugs from canada: canadian pharmacy 365 – canadian drugstore online
https://indiapharmglobal.com/# India Pharm Global
indian pharmacies safe: buy prescription drugs from india – reputable indian online pharmacy
buying from online mexican pharmacy Meds From Mexico Meds From Mexico
https://medsfrommexico.com/# Meds From Mexico
https://medsfrommexico.com/# Meds From Mexico
safe canadian pharmacies: Canada Pharm Global – legitimate canadian pharmacies
pharmacy wholesalers canada: Canada Pharm Global – onlinecanadianpharmacy 24
reputable canadian pharmacy Canada Pharm Global drugs from canada
https://canadapharmglobal.shop/# canada drugstore pharmacy rx
Meds From Mexico: Meds From Mexico – mexican mail order pharmacies
buying from online mexican pharmacy: pharmacies in mexico that ship to usa – medication from mexico pharmacy
mexico pharmacies prescription drugs mexican border pharmacies shipping to usa Meds From Mexico
https://canadapharmglobal.shop/# my canadian pharmacy
india pharmacy: India Pharm Global – India Pharm Global
India Pharm Global: indian pharmacy – reputable indian pharmacies
India Pharm Global India Pharm Global reputable indian pharmacies
https://indiapharmglobal.shop/# india online pharmacy
Meds From Mexico: mexican drugstore online – medicine in mexico pharmacies
online canadian pharmacy: Canada Pharm Global – cross border pharmacy canada
https://indiapharmglobal.com/# top 10 online pharmacy in india
pharmacy wholesalers canada: Canada Pharm Global – pet meds without vet prescription canada
http://medsfrommexico.com/# pharmacies in mexico that ship to usa
maple leaf pharmacy in canada: canadian drug stores – ordering drugs from canada
https://canadapharmglobal.shop/# trusted canadian pharmacy
buying drugs from canada: Canada Pharm Global – canadian pharmacy scam
Meds From Mexico: pharmacies in mexico that ship to usa – Meds From Mexico
https://canadapharmglobal.com/# canadian pharmacy world
india pharmacy buy prescription drugs from india pharmacy website india
https://canadapharmglobal.shop/# legit canadian pharmacy
pharmacies in mexico that ship to usa: Meds From Mexico – mexican online pharmacies prescription drugs
http://canadapharmglobal.com/# pharmacy canadian superstore
canadian pharmacy reviews: Canada Pharm Global – reputable canadian pharmacy
buying prescription drugs in mexico: mexican pharmaceuticals online – Meds From Mexico
https://canadapharmglobal.com/# canadian pharmacy
India Pharm Global: online pharmacy india – India Pharm Global
http://canadapharmglobal.com/# canadian pharmacy checker
best canadian pharmacy to order from Canada Pharm Global canadian medications
India Pharm Global: India Pharm Global – India Pharm Global
https://semaglupharm.com/# SemagluPharm
CrestorPharm: Crestor Pharm – Rosuvastatin tablets without doctor approval
п»їBuy Rybelsus online USA SemagluPharm FDA-approved Rybelsus alternative
can atorvastatin cause weight gain: LipiPharm – Atorvastatin online pharmacy
http://semaglupharm.com/# Rybelsus side effects and dosage
LipiPharm: generic name for lipitor – LipiPharm
http://crestorpharm.com/# CrestorPharm
LipiPharm LipiPharm LipiPharm
atorvastatin interactions with alcohol: LipiPharm – Lipi Pharm
https://semaglupharm.com/# rybelsus acid reflux
Online statin drugs no doctor visit: LipiPharm – does atorvastatin cause dizziness
PredniPharm PredniPharm PredniPharm
buy prednisone without prescription: prednisone 1mg purchase – PredniPharm
http://semaglupharm.com/# rybelsus side effects hair loss
Generic Lipitor fast delivery: LipiPharm – Online statin drugs no doctor visit
http://crestorpharm.com/# Crestor 10mg / 20mg / 40mg online
what is the lowest dose of rosuvastatin: п»їBuy Crestor without prescription – No doctor visit required statins
Semaglutide tablets without prescription rybelsus administration Safe delivery in the US
No prescription diabetes meds online: SemagluPharm – SemagluPharm
https://semaglupharm.com/# Rybelsus 3mg 7mg 14mg
Crestor Pharm: Crestor Pharm – Order rosuvastatin online legally
Predni Pharm Predni Pharm prednisone
prednisone generic cost: prednisone in mexico – Predni Pharm
http://semaglupharm.com/# SemagluPharm
https://semaglupharm.shop/# Rybelsus 3mg 7mg 14mg
USA-based pharmacy Lipitor delivery: Lipi Pharm – nursing implications for lipitor
п»їBuy Lipitor without prescription USA Lipi Pharm Lipi Pharm
difference between atorvastatin and rosuvastatin: CrestorPharm – CrestorPharm
https://semaglupharm.com/# side effects for rybelsus
Crestor Pharm: Crestor Pharm – CrestorPharm
Lipi Pharm what foods should you avoid when taking atorvastatin? Atorvastatin online pharmacy
Predni Pharm: PredniPharm – 5 mg prednisone tablets
https://semaglupharm.com/# what is semaglutide
https://crestorpharm.shop/# CrestorPharm
prednisone 1 mg for sale: PredniPharm – Predni Pharm
atorvastatin dosing LipiPharm LipiPharm
Buy statins online discreet shipping: Rosuvastatin tablets without doctor approval – Crestor Pharm
https://semaglupharm.shop/# SemagluPharm
rosuvastatin 3 times a week: Order rosuvastatin online legally – Crestor Pharm
FDA-approved generic statins online: does lipitor cause memory loss – Safe atorvastatin purchase without RX
Rybelsus for blood sugar control SemagluPharm SemagluPharm
http://semaglupharm.com/# FDA-approved Rybelsus alternative
https://prednipharm.com/# Predni Pharm
SemagluPharm: SemagluPharm – No prescription diabetes meds online
Affordable Lipitor alternatives USA Lipi Pharm Generic Lipitor fast delivery
https://semaglupharm.com/# Semaglu Pharm
PredniPharm: prednisone 30 mg tablet – PredniPharm
PredniPharm: PredniPharm – PredniPharm
prednisone 7.5 mg prednisone 10mg buy online prednisone pill 10 mg
semaglutide injection instructions FDA-approved Rybelsus alternative SemagluPharm
Crestor Pharm: crestor and fenofibrate – CrestorPharm
https://crestorpharm.com/# crestor cholesterol medication
No RX Lipitor online: Lipi Pharm – overdose of atorvastatin
SemagluPharm: FDA-approved Rybelsus alternative – Semaglu Pharm
rosuvastatin calcium tabs Crestor home delivery USA CrestorPharm
rosuvastatinдёж–‡: Buy cholesterol medicine online cheap – Generic Crestor for high cholesterol
USA-based pharmacy Lipitor delivery: LipiPharm – 5 mg lipitor
http://lipipharm.com/# FDA-approved generic statins online
can i take fish oil with rosuvastatin Buy statins online discreet shipping crestor tab
Online pharmacy Rybelsus: SemagluPharm – Semaglu Pharm
Crestor 10mg / 20mg / 40mg online: Buy statins online discreet shipping – Crestor Pharm
cost of prednisone tablets how much is prednisone 5mg prednisone 10 mg price
Semaglu Pharm: Safe delivery in the US – fda compounded semaglutide
SemagluPharm: Semaglu Pharm – online rybelsus
Rybelsus for blood sugar control Safe delivery in the US Semaglu Pharm
https://crestorpharm.shop/# CrestorPharm
SemagluPharm: Semaglu Pharm – tirzepatide vs semaglutide dosage for weight loss
LipiPharm: USA-based pharmacy Lipitor delivery – Lipi Pharm
п»їBuy Crestor without prescription Crestor Pharm Crestor 10mg / 20mg / 40mg online
Semaglu Pharm: SemagluPharm – Semaglu Pharm
atorvastatin vs simvastatin Lipi Pharm LipiPharm
http://semaglupharm.com/# oral semaglutide weight loss
where to buy prednisone 20mg no prescription: PredniPharm – PredniPharm
generic atorvastatin 40 mg images: LipiPharm – Lipi Pharm
prednisone uk buy order prednisone with mastercard debit prednisone 20mg for sale
why is calcium added to rosuvastatin No doctor visit required statins CrestorPharm
rybelsus dose for weight loss: SemagluPharm – SemagluPharm
https://prednipharm.com/# PredniPharm
Lipi Pharm: Lipi Pharm – LipiPharm
lipitor price: Atorvastatin online pharmacy – 20mg lipitor
semaglutide heartburn Rybelsus for blood sugar control SemagluPharm
http://lipipharm.com/# Atorvastatin online pharmacy
Buy Rybelsus online USA: Semaglu Pharm – SemagluPharm
PredniPharm 400 mg prednisone prednisone over the counter uk
Semaglu Pharm: Semaglu Pharm – rybelsus in mexico
how much weight do you lose the first month on semaglutide: Semaglu Pharm – what supplements not to take with semaglutide
Predni Pharm price for 15 prednisone PredniPharm
https://lipipharm.shop/# Atorvastatin online pharmacy
canada generic sildenafil: VGR Sources – buying generic viagra online
sildenafil drug prices: how to use viagra – viagra free shipping canada
buy viagra online fast shipping viagra pfizer where can you buy viagra uk
cheap viagra generic canada: VGR Sources – sildenafil pills canada
how much is female viagra: viagra price online – buy viagra online pharmacy
viagra brand name generic drug: VGR Sources – sildenafil 100mg price in india
sildenafil 20mg daily VGR Sources over the counter viagra india
sildenafil pill cost: VGR Sources – generic viagra australia
https://vgrsources.com/# how much is real viagra
sildenafil tablets 100mg buy: VGR Sources – can you buy viagra without a prescription
viagra 300mg price where can i buy generic viagra super force viagra
purchase viagra online with paypal viagra 150 tablet where to buy viagra tablets
sildenafil 50 mg online uk: buy viagra over the counter nz – buy sildenafil online canada
buy female viagra pills in india: VGR Sources – generic viagra usa pharmacy
https://vgrsources.com/# sildenafil 100mg usa
price of viagra in us: viagra without a script – viagra mastercard online pharmacy
sildenafil soft tabs 100mg VGR Sources buy genuine viagra online uk
sildenafil citrate tablets 100 mg: VGR Sources – buy viagra generic
generic sildenafil citrate: male female viagra – viagra online without a prescription
generic viagra 150 mg VGR Sources best sildenafil
purchase sildenafil citrate 100mg: 100mg viagra price in india – viagra cream online
buy viagra over the counter nz: viagra 100 mg tablets – prescription viagra 100mg
https://vgrsources.com/# generic viagra order online
viagra 50 mg cost: purchase viagra from india – can i buy viagra in usa
20 mg sildenafil cost buy sildenafil online best price viagra 50 mg
viagra usa over the counter: 20 mg viagra daily – generic viagra soft tabs online
generic sildenafil cost usa: VGR Sources – buy generic viagra united states
brand viagra uk usa viagra over the counter how do you get viagra
average price of 100mg viagra: VGR Sources – viagra online prescription uk
sildenafil online uk: 25 mg viagra cost – buy viagra no prescription online
https://vgrsources.com/# viagra mexico
generic sildenafil prescription VGR Sources pink viagra for women
generic brand viagra: VGR Sources – viagra coupon
real viagra from canada: VGR Sources – viagra price comparison
viagra pill cost canada VGR Sources sildenafil online europe
buy viagra express: VGR Sources – can i buy viagra online in canada
generic viagra online pharmacy usa: VGR Sources – cheap discount viagra
https://vgrsources.com/# prescription viagra cheap
viagra alternative VGR Sources sildenafil 80 mg
viagra prescription canada: buy viagra with prescription – order generic viagra
buy viagra online cheap: VGR Sources – prescription viagra cheap
sildenafil over the counter nz: VGR Sources – cheap viagra online uk
how to order viagra online in canada VGR Sources can i buy sildenafil over the counter in canada
https://vgrsources.com/# viagra cream price
viagra pills: how can i get generic viagra in canada – sildenafil drug
sildenafil mexico price: VGR Sources – buy viagra online from mexico
price for sildenafil 20 mg viagra 100 pill viagra generic viagra
canadian pharmacy brand viagra: VGR Sources – viagra 25mg price
can i buy viagra in europe: sildenafil 80 mg – best price brand viagra
sildenafil 100mg uk paypal VGR Sources viagra super force
https://vgrsources.com/# viagra without prescriptions
overseas pharmacy india: InPharm24 – doctor of pharmacy in india
pharmacy delivery: best generic viagra pharmacy – safeway online pharmacy
https://pharmexpress24.shop/# reliable online pharmacy
apotheke academy online india pharmacy india pharmacy delivery to usa
best online pharmacy india: history of pharmacy in india – doctor of pharmacy india
medlife pharmacy: medlife pharmacy – buy medicines online
https://inpharm24.com/# overseas pharmacy india
indian online pharmacy: medicine online purchase – online pharmacy india
big pharmacy online: Pharm Express 24 – pharmacy vardenafil
pharmacy in nogales mexico Pharm Mex trusted fill pharmacy
super saver pharmacy: viagra pharmacy australia – australian pharmacy cialis
cymbalta pharmacy checker: american pharmacy ambien – mexico online pharmacy
hcg mexico farmacia: buy prednisone online cheap – ozempic medication in mexico
http://pharmexpress24.com/# omeprazole pharmacy only
xanax cost in mexico: what drugs can you buy over the counter in mexico – can i buy viagra in mexico and bring it to the us
general health precision pharmacy omeprazole powder pharmacy rx one coupon
pharmacies in india: india pharmacy market outlook – online medicines india
medications for sale: can i order prescription drugs online – ozempic online mexico
mexican pharmacy adderall online: Pharm Mex – is mexican viagra safe
adderall in mexican pharmacy mounjaro mexico approval buying antibiotics in mexico
https://pharmmex.shop/# best mexican pharmacy products
percocet from mexico: online pharmacy mexican – accurate pharmacy
propecia generic online pharmacy: cialis super active online pharmacy – flomax training pharmacy
where can i buy ozempic in mexico: online pharmacy prescription drugs – adderall shipped to me
pharmacy course india: InPharm24 – first online pharmacy in india
canadian pharmacy no prescription needed: Pharm Mex – cheap prescriptions online
https://inpharm24.com/# india pharmacy international shipping
apollo pharmacy india: best online pharmacy in india – e pharmacy india
united pharmacy proscar: publix pharmacy bactrim – eu pharmacy online
india pharmacy market outlook top online pharmacy india india online pharmacy
https://inpharm24.com/# online pharmacy app developer in india
online pharmacy in india: india pharmacy market outlook – ex officio member of pharmacy council of india
http://pharmexpress24.com/# Vermox
mejores farmacia online: vantaggi farmacia online – curso auxiliar farmacia online
farmacia online consegna 24h: vea oris afte bambini – effiprev prezzo
ozempic france sans ordonnance: Pharmacie Express – viagra en france
palexia 25 farmacia online piГ№ economica celecoxib 200 mg prezzo
http://pharmacieexpress.com/# anti inflammatoire pharmacie sans ordonnance
acheter de l’amoxicilline sans ordonnance: amoxicilline prix sans ordonnance – qsp ordonnance
ricetta elettronica: farmacia online roma spedizione gratuita – viagra price
quelle pommade antibiotique sans ordonnance ? pharmacie avec ordonnance en ligne achat tadalafil
collirio betabioptal prezzo: farmaci a domicilio – farmacia europa genova
https://farmaciasubito.shop/# cortisone al cane
quel anti-inflammatoire peut-on avoir par une pharmacie sans ordonnance ?: mГ©dicament anti paludisme sans ordonnance – viagra pharmacie en france
roge cavailles savon: Pharmacie Express – medicament sans ordonnance angine
se puede comprar seguril sin receta: Confia Pharma – martiderm farmacia online
evra cerotto online: migliori siti farmacia online – migliori siti farmacia online
scalpel pharmacie sans ordonnance: comment obtenir une ordonnance en ligne – peut on acheter des antidГ©presseur sans ordonnance
minoxidil sans ordonnance prix: Pharmacie Express – coquelusédal nourrisson sans ordonnance
https://pharmacieexpress.com/# durex classic jeans
vigaroc en pharmacie sans ordonnance: shampoing ducray ds – solupred ordonnance
suspiria gocce: farmacia online recensioni – prazene 10 mg dove comprarlo
rap phyto gel: cialis sans ordonnance sanofi – generique jasminelle
farmacia online;: Confia Pharma – comprar medicamentos online sin receta méxico
frenadol se puede comprar sin receta: que ansiolitico puedo comprar sin receta – farmacia online gijón
dicloreum 150: crema antibiotica per acne – mederma crema
Kamagra oral jelly pas cher: kamagra en ligne – commander Kamagra en ligne