« Dessus-de-table » La corruption quotidienne dans la passation des marchés publics locaux au Sénégal
Giorgio Blundo, 2001.
http://www.politique-africaine.com/numeros/pdf/083079.pdf
FRANÇAIS
Nous sommes peut-être ici face à la forme la plus « civilisée » et la plus stabilisée de la corruption : on est loin en effet de l’exercice de la contrainte et de la déshumanisation qui caractérisent les relations entre agents publics et usagers dans la douane et la justice.
Si, dans les transactions corruptives qui concernent l’univers douanier ou la circulation routière, les agents « prennent en otage » le temps des usagers, dans la passation des marchés c’est l’information qui est objet de transaction et de manipulation, ainsi que les règles en vigueur, qui se trouvent vidées de leur substance. Nous avons souvent affaire, on le verra, à une corruption qui garde une certaine apparence de légalité.
Nous sommes plutôt en présence de négociations entre égaux (et, parfois, en situation de supériorité sociale et économique pour les acteurs du secteur privé) : beaucoup d’entrepreneurs nous ont dit qu’ils négociaient âprement le montant de la commission, quitte à renoncer au travail s’ils estimaient le prix à payer trop élevé.
L’exercice du marchandage (waxaale en wolof) n’exclut pas, d’ailleurs, des relations caractérisées par une forte « surpersonnalisation » : tout décideur a «son» entrepreneur, qui peut compter à son tour sur un «copain» fidèle au sein des commissions de dépouillement, et passe régulièrement saluer le maire pour voir s’il a un marché à lui proposer.
Car la longue fréquentation entre partenaires publics et privés crée des liens et des obligations réciproques. « Ceux qui puisent ensemble s’emmêlent les cordes » (« ñuuy rootaando ñoy laxaso goj»), dit un adage wolof.
Ce système complexe de connivences explique du reste pourquoi, en l’absence de victimes (hormis les entreprises exclues du jeu, mais qui hésitent à dénoncer les irrégularités dans l’espoir d’être retenues à leur tour), les marchés publics demeurent le secteur pour lequel il est le plus difficile de produire des preuves de corruption.
De ce fait, il s’agit également d’un domaine régi par des normes de fonctionnement et une éthique qui lui sont propres. Celui qui se voit attribuer un marché et qui « oublie » au moment du paiement ceux qui l’ont retenu ne bénéficiera pas d’aides une deuxième fois. Enfin, l’étude des mécanismes concrets de la passation des marchés publics au Sénégal dévoile un véritable continuum entre petite et grande corruption.
Des grands marchés d’infrastructures routières aux petits marchés de fourniture pour les collectivités locales en passant par la construction de bâtiments administratifs, les pratiques corruptives sont devenues la norme ; elles sont érigées en système, en ce sens que ce dernier ne peut plus fonctionner sans elles.
Les marchés par entente directe (ou de gré à gré), dans lesquels l’administration discute et traite le marché directement avec un fournisseur ou un, ont pris des proportions si importantes qu’ils représentaient en 1993 un total de 51 % des projets de marchés soumis à la Commission nationale des contrats de l’administration (CNCA) et 59 % de leur coût global. Le recours fréquent à ce mode de passation a été à l’origine de la conviction erronée, enracinée auprès de certains décideurs, que «jusqu’à 10 millions de francs CFA, on fait du gré à gré ».
Presque tous les domaines importants sont soumis à des régimes dérogatoires. Le cas du Palais de justice est représentatif des dérapages que peut engendrer l’abus légalisé des dérogations. En juin 2000, les travaux ont été arrêtés par ordre des nouvelles autorités issues de l’alternance, après le constat que le cocontractant, à savoir le Consortium d’entreprises (CDE), n’avait pas été chargé de la réalisation du Palais de justice à la suite d’un appel d’offres régulier, mais sur la simple base d’une lettre de commande dans laquelle le projet n’était même pas chiffré, et sans qu’un contrat ait été stipulé entre l’entreprise et le projet de construction et réhabilitation du patrimoine bâti de l’État.
L’exclusion préalable des soumissionnaires pour réduire le nombre de candidats potentiels à un appel d’offres et éliminer ainsi la concurrence est une pratique connue. Plusieurs stratégies sont mises en œuvre. Elles ont comme dénominateur commun la manipulation de l’information.
La première stratégie est celle de l’opacité. Il s’agit dans ce cas de limiter la publicité lors du lancement du marché. Les textes préconisent une large diffusion de l’appel d’offres, par les moyens de la presse écrite, de la radio, des bulletins d’information de la chambre de commerce.
Une autre stratégie courante consiste à fausser le jeu de la concurrence tout en donnant l’apparence d’une compétition réglementaire entre différentes entreprises. On assiste à des ententes préalables entre entreprises qui donnent lieu à de véritables «tontines des marchés», où l’on s’accorde pour gagner à tour de rôle.
Ainsi, dans un appel d’offres pour la réfection d’un tronçon de route dans une capitale régionale, l’une des deux seules entreprises de travaux publics de la place a fait sciemment une offre trop chère afin de favoriser le concurrent avec qui elle avait scellé un accord de non-belligérance.
Interrogé sur l’affaire, l’entrepreneur a avoué avoir présenté un devis de 300 millions, tout en sachant que la commune ne disposait que de 50 millions. Du reste, selon un autre entrepreneur de la place, « la route n’a pas pu coûter plus que 25 millions, car au lieu de faire un bicouche, comme prévu, on a seulement compacté et arrosé la latérite, on a passé du goudron à chaud, on a passé la gravillonneuse, projeté le gravillon sur le bitume et c’est fini. Je n’ai même pas vu la latérite stabilisée ».
Une autre variante de cette stratégie – fréquente dans le cas des demandes de renseignements et de prix ou pour les appels d’offres restreints – est la création d’entreprises fictives qui soumissionneront avec des offres irréalistes.
Car, en réalité, l’entrepreneur a déjà été désigné par le service ministériel ou par la collectivité locale ; pour garder un semblant de respect des procédures concurrentielles, on lui demande de fournir d’autres devis, établis par de fausses entreprises constituées soit par des acteurs issus de l’entourage du soumissionnaire, qui aura corrompu les commissions des marchés, soit par des tâcherons qui, en guise de récompense, seront embauchés par l’attributaire du marché ou travailleront pour lui sur la base de la sous-traitance.
ENGLISH
We might now be facing the most stable and “civilized” form of corruption: we are far from the coercion and dehumanization that characterize the relationship between civil servants and users in the judicial and customs services.
If, in corrupt transactions involving customs or police officials, agents “hijack” the user’s time, in the public procurement process it is information that is the subject to transaction and manipulation, as well as the rules, which are emptied of their substance. This is often the case, as we shall see, of a corruption that keeps a certain veneer of legality.
Rather, we are in the presence of negotiations between equals (and sometimes, in a situation where the private sector actors are socially and economically superior): many contractors have told us that they bitterly negotiated the commission’s sum, even if it meant ending the negotiations if they thought the price was too high.
Bargaining (waxaale in Wolof) doesn’t exclude relationships characterized by strong “personal ties”: all deciders have “their” contractor who can count on their loyal “friend” in the appropriations committees and who will regularly pass by the mayor’s office to see if he has a deal to propose.
These long associations between public and private partners create reciprocal ties and obligations. “Those who grow together become intertwined” (“ñuuy rootaando ñoy laxaso goj”), goes the Wolof proverb.
This complex system of collusion explains why, in the absence of victims (excluding those businesses who have been left out of the game, but hesitate to denounce irregularities, in the hope of being selected in turn), public procurement remains the sector in which it is the most difficult to produce evidence of corruption.
Therefore, it is a domain governed by its own norms and ethics. Whoever is awarded a contract and, at the time of payment, “forgets” those who selected him, will not benefit from this help again. Finally, the study of the concrete mechanisms of the public procurement process in Senegal reveals a real continuum between small and large-scale corruption.
From major road infrastructure contracts to small supply contracts for local communities, including the construction of administrative buildings, corrupt practices have become the norm: they are built into the system, in the sense that it can no longer function without them.
Contracts by direct agreement (or over-the-counter), in which the administration discusses and deals directly with a supplier or contractor, became so common that in 1993, they represented a total of 51% of procurements subject to the National Commission for Administration Contracts (CNCA) and 59% of their total cost. Frequent use of this mode of procurement was responsible for the mistaken belief, deeply held by some decision makers that “up to 10 million CFA francs, we still do direct agreement”.
Almost all the important areas are subject to derogations. The case of the National Courthouse is representative of the misdemeanors that can be caused by legalized abuse of derogations. In June 2000, work was stopped by order of the new authorities of power alternation, after finding that the other party, namely the Consortium of Companies (CDE), was not given the job following a normal call for tenders. It was given the job on the simple basis of a letter of command in which the project cost was not even assessed, and without a contract being established between the company and the construction and rehabilitation project of the State national heritage.
The prior exclusion of tenderers to reduce the number of potential candidates in a public tender and eliminate competition is a common practice. Several strategies are implemented. They have as a common denominator the manipulation of information.
The first strategy is opacity. This is to limit advertising prior to the launch of the call for tenders. Currently, the texts advocate for a wide dissemination of the call for tenders, by means of the written press, the radio, and the Chamber of Commerce newsletters.
Another common strategy is to distort competition while giving the appearance of a real competition between different companies. Here we witness prior agreements between enterprises that give rise to a veritable “procurement lottery”, where there is an agreement to take turns to win.
Thus, in a call for tenders for the repair of a stretch of road in a regional capital, one of the only two public works companies knowingly made an overly expensive offer in order to promote the competitor, with whom it had a non-compete agreement.
Asked about the case, the contractor admitted having submitted an estimate of 300 million, while knowing that the municipality had only 50 million to spend. Moreover, according to another contractor who was involved, ” The road could not have cost more than 25 million, because instead of a bilayer, as expected, the laterite was only compacted and watered, we passed over it with hot tar, we spread the gravel over the asphalt with the gravel spreader and called it a day. I didn’t even see the laterite get stabilized».
Another variant of this strategy – common in the case of requests for information and prices or for restricted tender offers – is the creation of fictitious companies that submit unrealistic offers.
Because, in reality, the contractor had already been appointed by the departmental service or the local community; to keep a semblance of respect for competitive procedures, the contractor was asked to provide other specifications, prepared by fake incorporated businesses owned by either the bidder or the bidder’s entourage, who will corrupt the public procurement commissions, or jobbers who, as a reward, will be hired by the bidder or will work for him as a subcontractor.
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